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"The earth is but one country, and mankind its citizens."
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"The earth is but one country, and mankind its citizens."
By Bahá'í Chronicles editors
Online biographical chronicles of Bahá'í heroes and heroines, by Neda Najibi and Vanda Khadem.
Stories by era covered
Featured figures
“Announce Assemblies celebration marriage beloved Guardian. Inestimable honour conferred upon handmaid of Baha'u'llah Ruhiyyih Khanum Miss Mary Maxwell. Union of East and West proclaimed by Baha'i Faith cemented. Ziaiyyih mother of Guardian.”
“Announce Assemblies celebration marriage beloved Guardian. Inestimable honour conferred upon handmaid of Baha’u’llah Ruhiyyih Khanum Miss Mary Maxwell. Union of East and West proclaimed by Bahá’í Faith cemented. Ziaiyyih mother…”
“…whose oil would well nigh shine out, even though fire touched it not! It is light upon light.”
“O thou soul who art well-assured, return unto thy Lord, well-pleased, and well-pleasing unto Him. Enter thou among My servants; enter Thou My Paradise.”
“A special service rendered by Ibn-i-Abhar was the promotion of the education of women. He and his wife played an important part in the advancement of women in Persian society.”
Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá
Primary Source'Abdu'l-Bahá
Selections from the Writings of the Báb
Primary Sourcethe Báb
Bahíyyih Khánum: The Greatest Holy Leaf
Cited in Authoritative HistoryVarious
Baha'i Stories for Children
Secondary RetellingVarious
Baha'i Stories Blog
Secondary RetellingVarious
Bahá'ís of the United States
Secondary RetellingBahá'ís of the United States editors
‘Abdu’l-Bahá spent His early years in an environment of privilege, wealth, and love. ** ‘Abdu’l-Bahá…
Mullá ‘Alí Ján and ‘Alavíyyih Khánum, not content with the conversion of the inhabitants of Máhfurúzak to the Bahá’í Faith, started to organize the life of the village on a spiritual basis. They encouraged each family to set aside a…
Over his mother's signature, but drafted by the Guardian, the following cable was sent to America: “Announce Assemblies celebration marriage beloved Guardian. Inestimable honour conferred upon handmaid of Baha'u'llah Ruhiyyih Khanum Miss…
From morning till dark he worked at his craft, and almost every night he entertained the friends at supper. ** Áqá…
Áqá Faraj and Abu’l-Qásim, who had gone into hiding, then hurried away to Adrianople, to fall, ultimately, with the others and with their Well-Beloved, into the ‘Akká prison. ** Áqá…
Aqa Husayn-i-Ashchi (Ashchi in Farsi means cook or maker of broth) was Baha'u'llah's cook. His father died on his way to ask for the hand of his brother's daughter to wed 'Abdu'l-Baha. Aqa Husayn-i-Ashchi's uncle Ustad Ismail raised him…
They needed no teacher, then; by themselves, they saw through the veils that had blinded them before, and won the supreme desire of their hearts. ** Áqá Ibráhím-i-Iṣfahání And His…
Aqa Mirza Ali Muhammad came face to face with the Supreme Manifestation of God. These meetings left an abiding impression upon his soul and magnetized his whole being with the love of his newly-found Lord. **Aqa Mirza Ali-Muhammad…
Aqa Mirza Muhammad-Taqi Abhari (Ibn-i-Abhar) received many tablets from Baha'u'llah. For example, Ibn-i-Abhar had posed the question of the well-being and prosperity of the Baha'is of Persia. In a Tablet revealed in 1889 Baha'u'llah in…
He was a tradesman, and like the others who came in at the start, he cast everything away out of love for God, attaining in one leap the highest reaches of knowledge. ** Áqá Muhammad-Báqir and Áqá Muhammad-Ismá‘íl, the…
He was a blessed person; he was like a cup filled with the red wine of faith. At the time when he was first made captive by the tender Loved One, he was in the flower of his youth. **…
Áqá Muḥammad had a fine poetic gift, and he would create verses like stringed pearls. **…
March 21, 2015 Baha’i Chronicles launches its website. Sharing stories of all the Baha’i Heroes and Heroines of the past and present from all over the world. Facebook X Pinterest LinkedIn You may also like William Sears *Source: Bahá'í…
Bahá'í Chronicles records the establishment of the South African Bahá'í community in the early 1950s — when Shoghi Effendi's Ten Year Crusade brought pioneers to the apartheid-era cities, and the first declarations were made by a handful of Black, white, and Indian South Africans who had found in the Faith the answer to the racial question their country had not yet faced.
"I beseech you," he tearfully entreated Mulla Ali, "to allow me to accompany you on your journey. Perplexities oppress my heart; I pray you to guide my steps in the way of Truth. Last night, in my dream, I heard the crier announce in the…
He spent his days in friendly association with the other believers. Then for a while he went to Ghawr, near Tiberias, where he farmed, both tilling the soil and devoting much of his time to supplicating and communing with God. **…
He became a candle burning with the love of God, a goodly tree in the Abhá gardens. He led all his household, his other kindred and his friends to the Faith, and successfully rendered many services. ** Hájí…
He lived for a time in Ádhirbáyján, enamored of the Lord. When he became widely known thereabouts as one bearing the name of God, the people ruined his life. ** Hájí…
Ḥájí Faraju’lláh, he lived on in that city, until the day when merciless oppressors banished Bahá’u’lláh to ‘Akká, and in His company the Ḥájí came here to the Most Great Prison. **…
On the friends’ final journey he went to Ádhirbáyján, and there, throwing caution to the winds, he roared out the Greatest Name: “Yá Bahá’u’l-Abhá!” The unbelievers there joined forces with his relatives, and they lured that innocent, that…
Not long after Shoghi Effendi assumed his stewardship as Guardian, it was possible for him, through the munificent assistance of a dedicated 'Iraqi Baha'i, Haji Mahmud Qassabchi, to carry out the arduous task, already referred to, of…
Haji Abu'l-Hasan Ardikani known as Haji Amin or Amin-i-Ilahi (the trustee of God). He was one of the prominent Bahá'ís of Iran and was appointed the trustee (amin) of the Huququ'llah as well as acting as a courier for conveying the letters…
Mirza Hasan-i-Adib was deeply interested in the education of Baha'i youth. Another great achievement was the founding of the Tarbiyat Boys' School in Tehran. **Haji Mirza Hasan-i-Adib** **Born:** 1845/1847 **Death:** 1919 **Place…
When still a small child, he received his portion of bounty from the Báb, and showed forth an extraordinary attachment to that dazzling Beauty. ** Ḥ****ájí Mírzá ****Ḥ****asan, the…
After Haji Mirza Musay-i-Javahari died in 1881, his son, Haji Mirza Musa inherited a portion of the estate. He owned the house where Baha’u’llah lived and was extremely happy to present it to Him as a gift. ** Haji Mirza…
The Bab's three uncles: Haji Mirza Siyyid Ali aka the Greatest Uncle - he was the middle brother, Haji Mirza Siyyid Muhammad aka the Greater Uncle - he was the eldest of the three brothers, and Haji Mirza Hassan Ali, the younger Uncle.…
He took up a staff and wandered away; over the mountains he went, across the plains, seeking and finding the mystics, his friends. **…
It was the first time in the history of the Baha'i Faith that an attack on one of its members had been dealt with justly. **Haji Muhammad Rida Isfahani Born:** Unknown **Death:** Unknown **Place of Birth:** Isfahan, Iran **Location…
Later, following a journey to distant countries, he went to the Holy Land, and there in utter submission and lowliness bowed his head before the Sacred Threshold and was honored with entering the presence of Bahá’u’lláh, where he drank in…
No sooner had Haji Muhammad-Taqi uttered these words than Siyyid Murtada, who was one of the noted merchants of Zanjan, hastened to take precedence of his companions. He flung himself over the body of Haji Muhammad-Taqi, and pleaded that,…
Haji Muhammad Tihir was a brilliant debater and speaker. It is difficult to convey the pleasure one derived from his inspiring conversation which ranged from humorous trifles to weighty pronouncements. His knowledge of the history and…
In the days when the fort of Tabarsi had become the rallying centre for the disciples of the Bab, he languished disconsolate upon a sick-bed, unable to lend his assistance and play his part for its defence. No sooner had he recovered than,…
Let lovers be warned by his story; let them know how he gambled away his life in his yearning after the Light of the World. May God give him to drink of a brimming cup in the everlasting gardens; in the Supreme Assemblage, may God shed…
He wished neither rank nor office, and had no worldly aims at all. His one supreme desire was to serve Bahá’u’lláh, and for this reason he was never separated from his Brother’s presence. ** His Eminence Kalím (Mírzá…
During all that time Husayn-Áqá never offended a soul, nor did anyone, where he was concerned, utter a single complaint. This was truly a miracle, and no one else could have established such a record of service. He was always smiling,…
He shouted aloud, was frenzied, was drunk with the music of the new message. He escaped from his debits and credits, set out to meet the Lord of his heart, and entered the presence of Bahá’u’lláh. ** Husayn Effendi…
When young, he joined the circle of the late Siyyid Kázim and became one of his disciples. He was known in Persia for his purity of life, winning fame as Mullá Ṣádiq the saintly. ** Ismu’lláhu’l-Asdaq (Mullá ****Ṣ****ádiq…
Bahá'í Chronicles records that in the late 1870s, Bahá'u'lláh dispatched Sulaymán Khán-i-Tunúkábání — known as Jamál Effendi — from 'Akká to India, with the charge to establish the Faith on the subcontinent. With Sayyid Muṣṭafá Rúmí, who would later carry the work into Burma, he founded the first Bahá'í communities of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta.
During the years when Bahá’u’lláh resided in Iraq, Jináb-i-Muníb left Káshán and hastened to His presence. He went to live in a small and humble house, barely managed to subsist, and set about committing to writing the words of God…
Bahá'í Chronicles preserves the biographical record of John Ebenezer Esslemont — the Aberdeen physician who, after encountering the Cause in 1914, wrote the introductory work *Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era,* moved to Haifa to serve at the Master's side, and was named by Shoghi Effendi a Hand of the Cause after his early death in 1925.
Gregory was instrumental in arranging for two major speaking engagements for ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in Washington DC to an audience of more than a thousand in Rankin Chapel at Howard University, and that evening to a large gathering of the Bethel…
Bahá'í Chronicles preserves the biographical record of Lua Aurelia Getsinger — the radiant Tennessee farm girl who, after the 1898 pilgrimage of fifteen Westerners to 'Akká, became the most celebrated travel-teacher of her generation, and whom 'Abdu'l-Bahá named *Livá* — *the Banner-Bearer.*
Bahá'í Chronicles preserves the biographical record of Martha Root — the small, quiet Pennsylvania newspaperwoman who, in the years between 1919 and her death in 1939, travelled four times around the world as a Bahá'í teacher, met queens and presidents, and was named by Shoghi Effendi *the foremost Hand of the Cause* of the Western world in his time.
Mashhadí Faṭṭáḥ possessed some merchandise; this was all he owned in the world. He had entrusted it to persons in Adrianople, and later on those unrighteous people did away with the goods. ** Mashhadí…
They were pure souls who took the great step in their own country: they freed themselves from friend and stranger alike, escaped from the superstitions that had blinded them before, strengthened their resolve, and bowed themselves down…
Bahá'í Chronicles preserves the biographical record of May Bolles Maxwell — one of the first pilgrims to 'Akká, the woman who established the Bahá'í community of Paris and of Montreal, the mother of Rúḥíyyih Khánum, and the travel-teacher whom Shoghi Effendi would name a martyr of the Faith after her death in Buenos Aires in 1940.
Mirzá ‘Abd’u’lláh had a modest music school in a district of Tihrán called Imám-zádeh Yahyá. A number of so called open minded pupils were following his classes. Music was forbidden in Islamic countries then, therefore the mob had a good…
Mirza Abu’l-Fadl was imprisioned on three different times.…
He was an early martyr of the Faith, was the recipient of the Tablet of the Verse of Light, as he had requested that Bahá'u'lláh interpret the isolated letters at the chapter beginnings of the Qur'an. ** Mirza…
An elaborate and exhaustive interrogation was conducted in the presence of the representatives of the Persian government and others during which Fadil had the opportunity to explain the purpose of his mission and defend the Bahá'í…
He was the fifteenth Letter of the Living. He was the brother of Mírzá Muhammad-‘Alí Qazvíní. ** Mírzá Hádí-i-Qazvíní, Letter of the…
Mírzá Ja‘far was patient and long-suffering, a faithful attendant at the Holy Threshold. He was a servant to all the friends, working day and night. A quiet man, sparing of speech, in all things relying entirely upon God. ** Mírzá…
Mahmud's Diary may sound familiar to many and this is the most popular of Mirza Mahmud-i-Zargani's work. Mahmud was almost 49 years old when he died. ** Mirza…
"he that was created by the light of Bahá" L: Mirza Mihdi with his brother ‘Abdu’l-Baha **Mírzá…
He was singled out from his fellows, head and shoulders above the rest. When still a child, he learned of the Lord’s Advent, caught fire with love, and became one of those who “gave their all to purchase Joseph.” ** Mírzá…
After he had received the endless bounties showered on him by Bahá’u’lláh, he was given leave to go, and he traveled to China. There, over a considerable period, he spent his days mindful of God and in a manner conformable to Divine good…
He was the son of Mullá ‘Abdu’l-Vahháb, a mujtahid (preeminent religious scholar) of Qazvin; cousin and brother-in-law of Táhirih, closely associated with her in Karbala. ** Mírzá Muhammad-‘Alíy-i-Qazvíní, Letter of the…
He was the third Letter of the Living and was the nephew of Mullá Husayn. ** Mírzá Muhammad Báqir Bushrú’í, Letter of the…
He was the younger brother of Mulla Husayn and the second Letter of the Living. ** Mírzá Muhammad Hasan Bushrú’í, Letter of the…
The Beloved of Martys and the King of Martyrs were approximately nine and eleven years old. They served the Bab and He paid special attention to them. During the dinner their father turned to the Bab and said, “My brother Mirza…
He was a princely individual known for his lavish openhandedness not only in Persia and Iraq but as far away as India. To begin with he had been a Persian vazír; but when he saw how the late Fath-‘Alí Sháh eyed worldly riches, particularly…
He was detached from every selfish thought, averse to every mention except to whatever concerned the Holy Cause. ** Mírzá…
Mírzá Muhammad Rawdih-Khán Yazdí (or Dhákir-i-Masá’ib) was the eighth Letter of the Living. ** Mírzá Muhammad Rawdih-Khán Yazdí, Letter of the…
He who had been waited upon, now waited on others; he who had been the master was now the servant, he who had once been a leader was now a captive. He had no rest, no leisure, day or night. To the travelers he was a trusted refuge; to the…
The farráshes hunted them down, and caught Mírzá Mustafá. But then the oppressors said, “Mírzá Mustafá had two long locks of hair. This cannot be the right man.” At once, Mírzá Mustafá took off his hat and down fell the locks of hair.…
Large crowds of people thronged the approaches to the headquarters of the government, eager to learn what would befall him. "Since last night," the Amir, as soon as he had seen him, remarked, " I have been besieged by all classes of State…
During the nineteen days that he remained there he drank his fill from the life-giving draught of the presence of the Master and on daily basis paid homage to the Sacred Shrine of Baha’u’llah. **Mirza Yusuf Vahid Kashfi Born:**…
In the afternoons he would take his samovar, wrap it in a dark-colored pouch made from a saddlebag, and go off somewhere to a garden or meadow, or out in a field, and have his tea. **…
He spent a considerable time in the Most Great Prison, after which Bahá’u’lláh desired him to leave for Sidon, where he engaged in trade. ** Muḥammad-‘Alí Ṣabbáq of…
He stationed himself by the Holy Threshold, carefully sweeping it and keeping watch. Through his constant efforts, the square in front of Bahá’u’lláh’s house was at all times swept, sprinkled and immaculate. **…
He guided a number of souls, remaining true and loyal to the great Cause. He endured terrible persecution and torment, but did not falter. Then he found favor in the eyes of the King of Martyrs and became a trusted attendant of the Beloved…
Muhammad-Husayn-i-Maraghi i was the last of the Seven Martyrs who with eagerness gave up his life for the Baha'i Faith. ** Muhammad-Husayn-i-Maraghi’i, the last of the Seven…
Muḥammad showed a keen interest to learn and master this language. He moved to Qazvín, the birth place of Táhiríh, to teach at Tavakkul Bahá’í School in 1914. In 1916, he was nominated as the official representative of the World Esperanto…
He was the twelfth Letter of the Living. He was present at the Conference of Badasht, a gathering of the Báb’s followers held in 1848. ** Mullá Ahmad-i-Ibdál-i-Marághi’í, Letter of the…
This honored man was successful in converting a multitude. For the sake of God he cast all caution aside, as he hastened along the ways of love. **Mu****lla`Ali-Akbar Shahmirzadi (Haji…
Mullá ‘Alí set out according to the Bab’s special instructions. He went first to Bushehr, where he met with the Báb’s uncle Hájí Mírzá Siyyid Muhammad, who years later accepted both the Báb and Bahá’u’lláh. By the late summer of 1844,…
He assisted Táhirih in Karbala, then traveled to Iran with her. He was present at the Conference of Badasht and later visited the Báb while He was in prison in Azerbaijan. ** Mullá Báqir-i-Tabrízí, Letter of the…
Mullá Hasan Bajistání was the sixth Letter of the Living. ** Mullá Hasan Bajistání, Letter of the…
He cheered and strengthened the disconsolate disciples of his beloved chief ** Mullá Husayn Bushrú’í, Letter of the…
The Bab often remarked how out of a city full of clergy, divines and religious institutions that the first to recognize the truth was a sifter of wheat, Mulla Jafar Isfahani. ** Mulla Jafar Isfahani (Sifter of…
Mullá Jalíl Urúmí was the eleventh Letter of the Living. He taught the Bábí Faith especially in Azerbaijan and Qazvin ** Mullá Jalíl-i-Urúmí, Letter of the…
He was the fifth Letter of the Living. He returned to Karbala from Shiraz. ** Mullá Khudá-Bakhsh Qúchání, Letter of the…
Mullá Mahmúd Khú’í was the tenth Letter of the Living. ** Mullá Mahmúd-i-Khú’í (Letter of the…
The clamour of the people that had massed around his house compelled Vahid to order Mulla Muhammad-Riday-i-Manshadi, one of the most enlightened ulamas of Manshad, who had discarded his turban and offered himself as his doorkeeper, to…
He was noted for his learning and eloquence. He played an active and prominent role among the Bábís. ** Mullá Yúsuf-i-Ardibílí, Letter of the…
He was a universal man, in himself alone a convincing proof. When his eyes were opened to the light of Divine guidance, and he breathed in the fragrances of Heaven, he became a flame of God. **Nabíl-i-Akbar**** (****Áqá…
He lived apart from friend and stranger alike, lamenting night and day, moaning and chanting prayers. There he remained as a recluse, and waited for the doors to open. **Nabíl-i-Zarandí aka…
He was young, far away from his loving father, and Mullá Muḥammad-‘Alí was his tutor and guardian. Bahá’u’lláh would refer to him with infinite grace and loving-kindness, and revealed a number of Tablets in his name. The Blessed Beauty…
He was designated by ‘Abdu’l-Baha as the “Moon of Guidance” and his “appearance the Revelation of St. John the Divine anticipated as one of the two ‘Witnesses’ into whom, ere the ‘second woe is past,’ the ‘spirit of life from God’ must…
** Sháh Muḥammad-Amín aka Haji Shah Muhammad…
He was a child of the eminent scholar, Shaykh-i-Mázgání; his noble father was one of the leading citizens of Qamsar, near Káshán, and for piety, holiness, and the fear of God he had no peer. **Shaykh…
Shaykh Hasan recognized in the Báb all those attributes his master had predicted, and he became His devoted disciple, travelling far and wide to be close to the newest Manifestation of God on earth. When the ulama of Isfahan issued the…
He received a long poem of which 127 of 2000 verses were preserved ** Shaykh…
His detachment from the things of this world and his attachment to the life of the spirit are indescribable. He was love embodied, tenderness personified. ** Shaykh…
He had remarkable powers of endurance. He traveled on foot, as a rule eating nothing but onions and bread; and in all that time, he moved about in such a way that he was never once held up and never once lost a letter or a Tablet.…
Sheikh Muhammad El Damirtchi was a Bahá'í scholar and mystic. He was one of the early followers of the Babí Movement since the days of Bahá’u’lláh. ** Sheikh Muhammad El…
As he faced the multitude that had gathered round him to witness his martyrdom, Siyyid Husayn raised his voice and said: "Hear me, O followers of Islam! My name is Husayn, and I am a descendant of the Siyyidu'sh-Shuhada, who also bore that…
He accompanied the Báb as His secretary during His imprisonment in Mákú and Chihríq. He became known as Kátib (the Amanuensis). ** Siyyid Husayn Yazdí, Letter of the…
Siyyid Isma`ils writings are among the best known in the modern Shi`ism and the most important among them are: Hisnul-Hasin dar Sharh Baladul-Amin, a commentary on his grandfather's important work on statesmanship. ** Siyyid…
They were required to spit on Siyyid Jafar's face. Despite this degradation, "he remained calm and resigned throughout his ordeal and manifested a spirit of sublime joy and love and thankfulness towards those who offended him. **…
Siyyid Mirza Husayn-i-Mutavalli was the recipient of the Tablet Shikkar-Shikan-Shavand. This man was a Babi who had been with 300 others under the leadership of Quddus at the Tabarsi fort, where they were attacked and starved. **…
Ultimately he became the intermediary through whom Tablets could be sent away and mail from the believers could come in. ** Siyyid Muḥammad-Taqí…
In May 1878, his travel teaching took Siyyid Mustafa Rumi to Myanmar (Burma). There he would, not yet knowing the local language, together with Jamal Effendi and Haji Siyyid Mihdi, lay the foundation for the Burmese Bahá’í community.…
On my arrival I found that Husayn Khan, who in the meantime had been searching for me, was eager to know whether I had fallen a victim to the Bab's magic influence. `No one but God,' I replied, `who alone can change the hearts of men, is…
When the prison authorities brought the Baha'i prisoners together in February, Tahirih saw her husband for the first time since their arrest. He had been so badly beaten that she could barely recognize him. **Tahirih Siyavushi, one…
Táhirih asked to borrow the writings and take them home. Mullá Javád violently objected, telling her: “Your father is an enemy of the Twin Luminous Lights, Shaykh Ahmad and Siyyid Kázim. **…
Although the young merchant's given name was Siyyid 'Ali-Muhammad, He took the name "Báb"…
"‘Abdu’l-Bahá recognized Chase as "the first American believer," and Shoghi Effendi later described him as "indeed the first to embrace the Cause of Bahá’u’lláh in the Western world." ** Thornton Chase, Disciple of…
Ustad ‘Ali Ashraf was a well-known architect, who designed and built most of the big governmental and national buildings (‘Qafqaziyyih’, 1867). 'Abdu'l-Bahá named one of the exterior doors to the Shrine of Bab after Ustad ‘Ali Ashraf.…
Ustad ‘Abdu’-Karim was a Baha'i mason who contributed to building the Shrine of the Bab. 'Abdu'l-Bahá named one of the exterior doors to the Shrine of Bab after Ustad ‘Abdu’-Karim. Named Bab-i-Karim. ** Ustad…
Exceptionally skilled in his craft, Ustád produced highly ingenious work, fashioning carpentry that, for intricacy and precision, resembled mosaic inlay. He was expert in mathematics as well, solving and explaining difficult problems.…
The architect Aqa Bala, who was in 'Akka on pilgrimage at the time, should beg 'Abdu'l-Bahá's permission to build a small bath in His house. And so he submitted his request. Since he was one of the pure in heart, his request was granted.…
For a time they stayed on in their own country, occupied with the remembrance of God, characterized by faith and knowledge, respected by friend and stranger alike, known to all for righteousness and trustworthiness, for austerity of life…
“Nothing is left me on this pathway. I have lost everything, including my bride. I have been able to give Him all I possessed.” ** Ustád…
While in his thirties, he became acquainted with a musician named Haji Khán who was in the entourage of the Governor of Isfahán and was a Bahá’i. Ustád Nasru’lláh was fond of music and wanted to learn to play an instrument. He took music…
He was high-minded, abstemious and chaste. When he became a believer, his urgent longing to meet Bahá’u’lláh could not be stilled; full of joyous love, he went out of the Land of Káf (Káshán) and traveled to Iraq, where he beheld the…
From his years Billy Sears possessed an inordinate interest in God. He asked his parents, his grandfather, the preacher, the mayor, even the local people he met a myriad of questions: 'Did God have a wife? Where was His house? Could He…
He was made a Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects. ** William Sutherland…
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